PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD: Study Notes

1. Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

• Definition: The term ‘Palaeolithic’ originates from the Greek words ‘palaeo,’ meaning old, and ‘lithic,’ meaning stone. Hence, Palaeolithic age refers to the old stone age.
• Context: This period of the old stone age in India corresponds to the Pleistocene period, also known as the Ice Age. During this geological era, the Earth was covered in ice, and extreme cold made it challenging for human and plant life to thrive. However, in tropical regions where ice had melted, the earliest human species managed to survive.
• Main Characteristics:
  • Negrito Race: Indian people during this time were believed to belong to the ‘Negrito’ race and inhabited open areas, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters.
  • Food Gathering: Their primary means of sustenance involved gathering wild fruits and vegetables and engaging in hunting for food.
  • Absence of Civilization: Palaeolithic culture lacked the knowledge of constructing houses, making pottery, or practicing agriculture. The discovery of fire came later in this period.
  • Artistic Expression: Evidence of art emerged in the upper Palaeolithic age, particularly in the form of paintings.
  • Stone Tools: Palaeolithic humans crafted tools from unpolished, rough stones such as hand axes, choppers, blades, burins, and scrapers.
  • Quartzite Men: They are often referred to as ‘Quartzite’ men in India because their stone tools were fashioned from a hard rock known as quartzite.

• Phases of the Palaeolithic Age in India:

  • Lower Palaeolithic Age: Extending up to 100,000 BC.
  • Middle Palaeolithic Age: Spanning from 100,000 BC to 40,000 BC.
  • Upper Palaeolithic Age: Encompassing the period from 40,000 BC to 10,000 BC.

These phases are categorized based on the types of stone tools used and climate-related changes during the Palaeolithic age in India, providing insights into the evolving human societies and technologies of that time.

Lower Palaeolithic Age (Early Palaeolithic Age)

• Duration: This phase predominantly spans the period of the Ice Age.
• Lifestyle: During this era, the inhabitants were primarily hunters and food gatherers. They relied on a limited set of tools, which included hand axes, choppers, and cleavers. These tools were notably rough and heavy in construction.
• Archaeological Significance: Among the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites discovered, Bori in Maharashtra stands out. Limestone was also utilized in tool-making during this time.
• Distribution of Sites: Lower Palaeolithic sites are distributed across various regions, including:
  • Soan Valley (located in present-day Pakistan)
  • Sites in the Thar Desert
  • Kashmir
  • Mewar Plains
  • Saurashtra
  • Gujarat
  • Central India
  • Deccan Plateau
  • Chotanagpur Plateau
  • North of the Cauvery River
  • Belan Valley in Uttar Pradesh
• Habitation and Shelter: People during this phase inhabited various types of sites, including caves and rock shelters, which served as protective environments.
• Significant Location: An important location associated with the Lower Palaeolithic Age is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh, which offers valuable insights into the lives of ancient inhabitants through its archaeological remains.

Middle Palaeolithic Age

• Tool Evolution: In the Middle Palaeolithic Age, there was a notable evolution in tools. People used tools such as flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers, and borers. These tools were characterized by their smaller size, lighter weight, and thinner construction.
• Shift in Tool Usage: One significant change during this period was a decrease in the use of hand axes in favor of other tool types. This shift marked a transition in tool-making techniques and technological advancement.Prominent Middle Palaeolithic Age Sites:
  • Belan Valley, Uttar Pradesh: This region was home to important Middle Palaeolithic sites, providing valuable insights into the lives of ancient inhabitants.
  • Luni Valley, Rajasthan: In the Luni Valley of Rajasthan, evidence of Middle Palaeolithic activity has been discovered, shedding light on the region’s prehistoric past.
  • Son and Narmada Rivers: The banks of the Son and Narmada rivers also contain archaeological remains from the Middle Palaeolithic Age.
  • Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka, a significant site from the Lower Palaeolithic Age, continued to be inhabited during the Middle Palaeolithic period, offering a continuous record of human history.
  • Tungabhadra River Valleys: These valleys provided suitable environments for Middle Palaeolithic communities, where they left traces of their activities.
  • Potwar Plateau (Between Indus & Jhelum): This plateau between the Indus and Jhelum rivers yielded archaeological evidence of Middle Palaeolithic settlements.
  • Sanghao Cave (Near Peshawar, Pakistan): Located near Peshawar in Pakistan, the Sanghao Cave is another important Middle Palaeolithic site that has contributed to our understanding of early human history in the region.

Upper Palaeolithic Age

• Climate Transition: The Upper Palaeolithic Age coincided with the last phase of the Ice Age, characterized by a relatively warmer and less humid climate compared to earlier periods.
• Emergence of Homo Sapiens: One of the significant developments during this era was the emergence of Homo sapiens, the species to which modern humans belong.
• Technological Innovation: The Upper Palaeolithic period was marked by notable innovations in tools and technology. This phase saw the production of various bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools, and burin tools.Prominent Upper Palaeolithic Age Sites:
  • Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal): Bhimbhetka, known for its rich archaeological record, contains evidence of hand axes, cleavers, blades, scrapers, and a few burins from the Upper Palaeolithic period.
  • Belan: Belan, situated in the Belan Valley of Uttar Pradesh, is another significant site that provides insights into the Upper Palaeolithic culture.
  • Son: The banks of the Son River have yielded archaeological findings from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
  • Chota Nagpur Plateau (Bihar): This plateau in Bihar was home to Upper Palaeolithic communities with distinct technological and cultural traits.
  • Maharashtra: The state of Maharashtra also contains sites that bear evidence of Upper Palaeolithic activity.
  • Orissa: Archaeological discoveries in Orissa contribute to our understanding of human history during this period.
  • Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh: The Eastern Ghats region of Andhra Pradesh contains sites with archaeological remains from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
• Bone Tools: Notably, bone tools from the Upper Palaeolithic Age have been discovered at cave sites in Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh. These tools represent advancements in technology and craftsmanship during this period.

2. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)

• Etymology: The term “Mesolithic” originates from two Greek words – ‘meso,’ meaning middle, and ‘lithic,’ meaning stone. Thus, the Mesolithic stage in prehistory is also referred to as the ‘Middle Stone Age.’
• Era Context: Both the Mesolithic and Neolithic phases are part of the Holocene era. During this era, there was a rise in temperature, resulting in warmer climates, the melting of ice, and significant changes in flora and fauna.Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic Era:
  • Shift in Subsistence: Initially, Mesolithic people relied on hunting, fishing, and food gathering for sustenance. However, later in this era, they began domesticating animals and cultivating plants, laying the foundation for agriculture.
  • Animal Domestication: The first domesticated animal was the wild ancestor of the dog, with sheep and goats being the most common domesticated species.
  • Settlements: Mesolithic communities lived in semi-permanent settlements, often utilizing caves and open areas for habitation.
  • Beliefs about the Afterlife: People of this era believed in an afterlife and buried the deceased with food items and other possessions.
  • Microliths: Mesolithic people crafted microliths, miniature stone tools typically made from materials like crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert. These tools were used for various purposes, including the creation of composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after attaching them to wooden or bone handles. Microliths allowed for more efficient hunting of smaller animals and birds.
  • Clothing: Mesolithic individuals began wearing clothes made from animal skins.
  • Rock Art: Mesolithic people displayed their artistic inclinations through rock art. Common subjects in these paintings included depictions of wild animals, hunting scenes, dancing, and food collection. These paintings offer insights into the development of religious practices and the division of labor based on gender.
  • Ganga Plains Colonization: The Mesolithic period witnessed the first human colonization of the Ganga Plains, marking a significant expansion of human habitation and activities in this region.

Important Mesolithic Sites in India

1. Bagor, Rajasthan:
   • Located on the banks of the Kothari River in Rajasthan.
   • One of the largest and well-documented Mesolithic sites in India.
   • Excavations have revealed microliths, animal bones, and shells, providing valuable insights into the Mesolithic lifestyle.
2. Adamgarh, Madhya Pradesh:
   • Located in Madhya Pradesh.
   • Provides some of the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals during the Mesolithic period.
3. Mesolithic Rock Art Sites:
   • India boasts around 150 Mesolithic rock art sites, with a concentration in Central India.
   • Notable sites include:
     • Bhimbetka Caves (Madhya Pradesh): Known for its rich collection of rock art and archaeological remains.
     • Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia (Madhya Pradesh): Sites with significant Mesolithic rock art.
     • Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha): Contain Mesolithic rock art that provides insights into ancient cultural practices.
     • Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala): Features rock art from the Mesolithic era.
4. Valleys with Microliths:
   • Microliths have been discovered in several valleys, including those of the Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and Mahi rivers.
5. Langhnaj, Gujarat:
   • Located in Gujarat.
   • Excavations at Langhnaj have unearthed bones of various wild animals, such as rhinoceros and blackbuck, along with a large number of microliths.
6. Biharanpur, West Bengal:
   • An important Mesolithic site in West Bengal.
   • Archaeological excavations have revealed several human skeletons and a significant quantity of microliths.
7. Kaimur Region of Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh:
   • Pottery has been found in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, unlike most other Mesolithic sites where pottery is absent.

3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)

• Etymology: The term “Neolithic” originates from the Greek words ‘neo,’ meaning new, and ‘lithic,’ meaning stone. Therefore, the Neolithic Age is often referred to as the ‘New Stone Age.’ It is also known as the ‘Neolithic Revolution’ due to the significant changes it introduced to human social and economic life, particularly the shift from food gathering to food production.Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age:
  • Tools and Weapons: Neolithic people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made from polished stones. Notably, they used celts, which were important for ground and polished hand axes. Bone tools, such as needles, scrapers, borers, and arrowheads, were also common. The use of polished tools facilitated cultivation, hunting, and various activities.
  • Agriculture: A defining feature of the Neolithic Age was the shift from hunting and gathering to agriculture. People cultivated land, growing crops like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated animals, including cattle, sheep, and goats.
  • Pottery: With the advent of agriculture, the need for storing and cooking food increased. As a result, pottery became more widespread during this period. Pottery types included greyware, black-burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. Initially, pottery was handmade, but foot wheels were later employed for more efficient production.
  • Housing and Settled Life: Neolithic people lived in houses that were often rectangular or circular and constructed from mud and reeds. They had knowledge of boat-making and were skilled in spinning cotton and wool, as well as weaving cloth. The Neolithic Age marked a shift towards a more settled lifestyle, setting the stage for the emergence of civilization.
  • Habitat: Neolithic people primarily inhabited hilly river valleys, rock shelters, and slopes of hills. This choice of location was influenced by their dependence on stone-based weapons and tools.

Important Neolithic Sites in India and Pakistan

1. Koldihwa and Mahagara (South of Allahabad, India):
   • Evidence of circular huts and crude handmade pottery.
   • Oldest evidence of rice cultivation, not only in India but also globally.
2. Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan):
   • One of the earliest Neolithic sites.
   • People lived in houses constructed from sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
3. Burzahom (Kashmir, India):
   • Notable for burying domestic dogs with their masters in graves.
   • Inhabitants lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones and bones.
4. Gufkral (Kashmir, India):
   • Known for pit dwellings, stone tools, and graveyards within houses.
5. Chirand (Bihar, India):
   • Neolithic people at Chirand used tools and weapons made from bones.
6. Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka, India):
   • Associated with cattle herding, and people domesticated sheep and goats.
   • Ash mounds have been discovered at some of these locations.
7. Belan Valley (Northern Spurs of the Vindhyas and Middle Part of Narmada Valley, India):
   • Unique in having evidence from all three phases – Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic – in chronological sequence.

Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age)

Introduction of Metal: The Chalcolithic Age, often referred to as the Stone Copper Age, marked a significant transition where the use of metal, particularly copper, began to complement stone tools. This age primarily applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but it appeared in various regions after the decline of the Bronze Age Harappan culture.Characteristics of the Chalcolithic Age:

• • Agriculture and Cattle Rearing: People in the Chalcolithic Age engaged in agriculture and domesticated animals. They raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, and buffaloes, while also hunting deer. The presence of horses is unclear. Beef was consumed, but pork was not a major part of their diet. They cultivated crops such as wheat, rice, bajra, lentils (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea. Cotton was grown in the Deccan’s black cotton soil, and millets like ragi and bajra were cultivated in the lower Deccan. In eastern regions, fish and rice were staples.
  • Pottery: Various types of pottery were used, including black and red pottery, which was widespread during this era. Ochre-colored pottery was also popular. The potter’s wheel was employed, and pottery was adorned with white linear designs.
  • Rural Settlements: Chalcolithic communities were characterized by rural settlements and lacked knowledge of burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses constructed from mud bricks. Social inequalities began to emerge, with chiefs residing in rectangular houses while commoners lived in round huts. Villages typically consisted of more than 35 houses of different shapes, circular or rectangular, marking a village-based economy.
  • Art and Craft: Chalcolithic people were skilled coppersmiths, knowledgeable about copper smelting, and proficient stone workers. They practiced spinning and weaving and were adept at cloth manufacturing. However, they did not possess writing skills.
  • Religious Practices: Small clay images of earth goddesses have been discovered at Chalcolithic sites, suggesting veneration of the Mother Goddess. In some regions like Malwa and Rajasthan, stylized bull terracottas indicate the bull’s significance in religious cults.
  • Infant Mortality: Infant mortality rates were high among Chalcolithic populations, evident from the burial of numerous children in West Maharashtra. Despite being a food-producing economy, longevity was not promoted, possibly due to social and economic factors.
  • Jewelry: Chalcolithic people had a penchant for ornaments and decoration. Women wore ornaments made of shells and bones and adorned their hair with finely crafted combs. They also produced beads from semi-precious stones like carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.

Important Chalcolithic Sites in India

1. Ahar (Banas Valley, South Eastern Rajasthan):
   • Known for metallurgical practices, including smelting and metallurgy.
   • Produced copper tools and traded them with contemporary communities.
   • Rice cultivation was also practiced in this region.
2. Gilund (Banas Valley, Rajasthan):
   • Noted for its stone blade industry.
3. Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra):
   • The largest Jorwe culture site located in the Godavari valley.
   • Famous for the recovery of bronze artifacts, including a bronze rhinoceros, elephant, a two-wheeled chariot with a rider, and a buffalo.
4. Malwa (Madhya Pradesh):
   • Settlements of the Malwa culture are primarily found along the Narmada River and its tributaries.
   • Known for rich Chalcolithic ceramics and the presence of spindle whorls.
5. Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh):
   • The Kayatha culture settlement was mainly situated along the Chambal River and its tributaries.
   • Houses featured mud-plastered floors and exhibited pre-Harappan elements in pottery. Copper objects with sharp cutting edges were also discovered.
6. Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal):
   • Prominent Chalcolithic sites in Bihar and West Bengal.
7. Songaon, Inamgaon, and Nasik (Maharashtra):
   • These sites are known for the discovery of large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses.
8. Navdatoli (on Narmada River):
   • One of the largest Chalcolithic settlements in India, covering approximately 10 hectares.
   • Cultivated a variety of food grains.
9. Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh):
   • These sites are notable for their non-Harappan culture, distinct from the Harappan civilization.

Important Chalcolithic Sites in India

1. Ahar (Banas Valley, South Eastern Rajasthan):
   • Known for practicing smelting and metallurgy.
   • Supplied copper tools to other contemporary communities.
   • Rice cultivation was a significant agricultural practice in this region.
2. Gilund (Banas Valley, Rajasthan):
   • Noted for its stone blade industry.
3. Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra):
   • The largest site associated with the Jorwe culture in the Godavari Valley.
   • Renowned for the recovery of bronze artifacts, including a bronze rhinoceros, elephant, a two-wheeled chariot with a rider, and a buffalo.
4. Malwa (Madhya Pradesh):
   • Settlements of the Malwa culture are mainly located along the Narmada River and its tributaries.
   • Provides evidence of rich Chalcolithic ceramics and spindle whorls.
5. Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh):
   • Kayatha culture settlements were primarily situated along the Chambal River and its tributaries.
   • Houses featured mud-plastered floors and exhibited pre-Harappan elements in pottery.
   • Copper objects with sharp cutting edges were also discovered.
6. Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar) and Mahishdal (West Bengal):
   • Prominent Chalcolithic sites in Bihar and West Bengal.
7. Songaon, Inamgaon, and Nasik (Maharashtra):
   • These sites feature large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses.
8. Navdatoli (on Narmada River):
   • One of the largest Chalcolithic settlements in India, covering approximately 10 hectares.
   • Cultivated a variety of food grains.
9. Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh):
   • Known for their non-Harappan cultures and unique archaeological findings.