Radiocarbon dating places its initiation around 2500-1750 BC.
Notable features include systematic town planning with a grid system, burnt brick construction, advanced drainage systems, and fortified citadels.
The Great Bath in Mohenjo-daro was used for religious bathing, complete with changing rooms.
Harappa had six granaries in a row.
The towns were divided into the Citadel (Upper Part) and the Lower Part. There’s no evidence of weapons, suggesting rule by a merchant class.
Agriculture involved sowing seeds in November and harvesting in April to avoid floods.
Crops included wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesame, rice, and mustard.
The Indus people were the first to produce cotton, referred to as “Sindon” by the Greeks.
They had a variety of domesticated animals.
The Indus Valley Civilization had a well-organized trade system with both external and internal trade. The barter system was prevalent.
Iron was not known to the people during this civilization.
They used a measurement system based on multiples of 16.
The civilization practiced phallic (lingam) and yoni worship, and they considered the Earth as a fertility goddess.
The unicorn was a highly worshiped animal, along with other animals, trees, birds, and stones. However, no evidence of temples has been found.
Dead bodies were typically placed in a North-South orientation.
The Seal of Pashupati depicted various animals, including elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses, and buffaloes, with two deer at the feet of Pashupati.
Belief in ghosts and evil forces was evident, and amulets were used for protection. Fire altars were found at some sites.
The seals, made of steatite, were considered the greatest artistic creations of the civilization. The Harappan script is pictographic and remains undeciphered.
The script was written right to left in the first line and left to right in the second line, a style known as Boustrophedon.
Various occupations were practiced, including spinning, weaving, boat-making, goldsmithing, pottery making, and seal making.
The decline of the civilization is thought to have been influenced by factors like Aryan invasions, recurrent floods, social fragmentation, and earthquakes.
The civilization’s boundaries extended from Mandu in the north (Jammu and Kashmir) to Daimabad in the south (Maharashtra), Alamgirpur in the east, and Sutkagendor in the west.
Harappa:
Location: Situated on the banks of the Ravi River in the Montgomery district of Punjab, Pakistan.
Excavation: Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921-23.
Significance: The entire Indus Civilization is named after Harappa, and it is often referred to as the “Harappan Civilization.”
Notable Finds: Stone dancing Natraja, Cemetry-37, and various artifacts.
Mohenjodaro (Mound of Dead):
Location: Located on the banks of the Indus River in the Larkana district of Sindh, Pakistan.
Excavation: Excavated by RD Bannerji in 1922.
Main Structures: Includes significant structures like the Great Bath, the Great Granary, the Collegiate Building, and the Assembly Hall.
Notable Finds: The famous bronze “Dancing Girl,” the Pashupati Mahadeva/proto Shiva seal, fragments of woven cotton, and other artifacts.
Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan):
Location: Banks of the Indus River.
Discovery: NG Majumdar in 1931.
Unique Feature: No citadel.
Notable Finds: Bronze figurines (bullock cart, ekkas), small ink pot.
Lothal (Gujarat):
Location: Gujarat, on Bhogava River.
Discovery: SR Rao in 1954.
Site Structure: Citadel, lower town, dockyard.
Notable Finds: Evidence of rice cultivation.
Kalibangan (Rajasthan):
Location: Ghaggar River in Rajasthan.
Discovery: BB Lal in 1961.
Unique Features: Wooden furrow, seven fire-altars, camel bone evidence.
Burial Practices: Circular and rectangular graves.
Dholavira:
Location: River Luni, Kachchh district, Gujarat.
Discovery: JP Joshi in 1967-68.
Unique Features: Exceptional water management system, divided into 3 parts, largest Harappan inscription, and a stadium.
Surkotada (Gujarat):
Discovery: JP Joshi in 1972.
Notable Findings: Evidence of horses, oval graves, pit burials, and signs of being a potential port city.
Banawali (Haryana):
Location: On river Saraswati.
Discovery: RS Bisht in 1973.
Features: Evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture, lacked systematic drainage, evidence of good quality barley.
