Indus Valley Civilization: Study Notes

Chronology and Geographic Extent of the Indus Valley Civilization

Chronology:

• The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC.
• It flourished during the period between 2600 BC and 1900 BC known as the Mature Indus Valley Civilization.
• The decline commenced around 1900 BC, and the civilization ultimately disappeared around 1400 BC.

Terminology:

• Also known as the Harappan Civilization due to the excavation of the first city, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan).

Pre-Harappan Civilization:

• Evidence of a Pre-Harappan civilization has been discovered in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, showcasing the earliest evidence of cotton cultivation.

Geographical Extent:

• The civilization covered regions including:
  • Punjab
  • Sindh
  • Baluchistan
  • Rajasthan
  • Gujarat
  • Western Uttar Pradesh
• It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East.
• From Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
• Some Indus Valley sites have been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

Indus Valley Civilization – Important Sites and Characteristics

Important Sites:

• In India:
  • Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
  • Lothal
  • Dholavira
  • Rangpur
  • Surkotda (Gujarat)
  • Banawali (Haryana)
  • Ropar (Punjab)
• In Pakistan:
  • Harappa (on river Ravi)
  • Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh)
  • Chanhudaro (in Sindh)

Discovery and Excavation:

• The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign led by Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa, following the discovery of seals by J Fleet.
• Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni, and Madho Sarup Vats.
• Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall.

Urban Sophistication:

• Indus Valley cities exhibit a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
• Most cities had similar patterns, featuring a citadel and a lower town.
• Common features included a Great Bath, granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent stormwater and wastewater management systems, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc.

Economic Practices:

• Agriculture was the primary occupation.
• The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to cultivate cotton.
• Animals such as sheep, goats, and pigs were domesticated.
• Crops included wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
• Trade connections existed with the Sumerians.

Metal Production and Technology:

• Metal products included copper, bronze, tin, and lead. Gold and silver were also known. However, iron was not known to them.

Religious Practices:

• No structures like temples or palaces have been found.
• Worship included male and female deities. The ‘Pashupati Seal’ shows an image believed to be an early form of Lord Shiva according to Marshall.
• Advanced artwork, including the statuette of the ‘Dancing Girl’ and the figure of a bearded Priest-King from Mohenjodaro, showcases the civilization’s artistic achievements.

Cultural Practices:

• Lothal was a notable dockyard.
• Disposal of the dead involved burial in wooden coffins initially. In the later H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns.

Script and Language:

• The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

Factors and Theories:

• The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is not attributed to a single cause, and various factors are considered by historians and archaeologists.

Gradual Decline:

• Archaeologists now believe that the decline of the civilization was not abrupt but rather a gradual process. People moved eastwards, and cities were abandoned. Writing and trade also declined.

The Aryan Invasion Theory:

• Mortimer Wheeler initially suggested that the decline was due to an Aryan invasion. However, this theory has been debunked and is no longer widely accepted.

Tectonic Movements and Floods:

• Robert Raikes proposed that tectonic movements and floods might have contributed to the decline.

Environmental Factors:

• Other causes include river drying, deforestation, and destruction of the green cover.
• Some cities may have been affected by floods, but not all.
• A combination of these environmental factors is now accepted as potential contributors to the decline.

Important Facts on Indus Valley Civilization

 Terminology and Attribution:

• John Marshall was the first researcher to use the term ‘Indus Valley Civilization’.

 Chronological Spread:

• The Indus Valley Civilization is dated to have spread from approximately 2500 BC to 1750 BC, according to radio-carbon dating.

 Distinctive Feature:

• The most distinctive feature of the Harappan Civilization was its characteristic urbanization.

 Domestication of Animals:

• Animals such as sheep and goats, dogs, humped cattle buffalo, and elephants were domesticated in the Indus Valley Civilization.

 Capital Cities:

• The primary capital cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

 Port Cities:

• Notable port cities associated with the civilization include Sutkagendor, Balakot, Lothal, Allahdino, and Kuntasi.

Agricultural Practices:

• The Indus Valley people were well-acquainted with the use of both cotton and wool in their agricultural practices.

Rich Artefacts and Art Forms:

• The Indus Valley Civilization produced a wealth of artefacts and art forms, showcasing the cultural and artistic prowess of the ancient civilization.

Emergence of Indus Valley Art:

• The distinctive Indus Valley art form emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (2500 BC onwards).

Seals:

• Thousands of seals have been discovered by archaeologists from various Harappan sites.

Key Information on Harappan Seals

Materials Used:

• Most Harappan seals were crafted from steatite (a soft stone).
• Additionally, seals were made from materials such as gold, ivory, agate, terracotta, chert, and faience.

Shape:

• The typical shape of Harappan seals was square, with dimensions of 2X2.

Purpose:

• Commercial Use: Seals were primarily utilized for commercial purposes.
• Amulets: Some seals were also used as amulets, possibly serving as a form of identification.

Depictions on Seals:

• The Harappan seals feature depictions of animals with accompanying pictographic scripts (yet to be deciphered).
• Animals depicted include tigers, elephants, bulls, bison, goats, etc.
• Some seals have mathematical images, suggesting educational purposes.

Writing on Seals:

• There are writings on both sides of the seals, with the script in the Kharosthi style (right to left).

Pashupati Seal:

• The Pashupati Seal from Mohenjo Daro is one of the most famous Harappan seals.
• It features a seated figure cross-legged in the center, surrounded by animals: an elephant and a tiger to the right, and a rhino and a buffalo to its left.

Indus Valley Civilization Cities

Mohenjodaro

• • State/Country: Sindh Province, Pakistan
  • Facts: Located on the right bank of the River Indus.

Kalibangan

• • State/Country: Rajasthan, India
  • Facts: Situated on the banks of the Ghaggar River.

Chanhudaro

• • State/Country: Sindh Province, Pakistan
  • Facts: Located on the left bank of the River Indus, to the South of Mohenjodaro.

Lothal

• • State/Country: Gujarat, India
  • Facts: Positioned at the head of the Gulf of Cambay.

Surkotada

• • State/Country: Gujarat, India
  • Facts: Located at the head of the Rann of Kutch.

Banawali

• • State/Country: Haryana, India
  • Facts: Situated on the banks of the now-extinct Saraswati River.

Dholavira

• • State/Country: Gujarat, India
  • Facts: Excavated in the Kutch district.

Geographical Facts about the Indus Valley Civilization:

Size and Importance:

• The Indus Valley Civilization was the largest among the four civilizations of the world, including Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China.

Naming and Settlements:

• The civilization was named after the Indus River as the first settlement was discovered along its banks.
• Contrarily, there are over 500 sites along the Ghaggar-Hakra River, leading some archaeologists to prefer the term ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilization‘ based on the two river systems.

Alternative Names:

• Some archaeologists prefer the term ‘Harappan Civilization‘ as the first settlement was discovered in the city of Harappa.
• The use of ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilization‘ is based on the major river systems in the region.

Ghaggar-Hakra River:

• Over 500 sites are found along the Ghaggar-Hakra River.
• According to some archaeologists, these sites are well-preserved as they lie in the uninhabited desert.

Size and Location of Indus Valley Civilization:

• • Geographical Spread: The Indus Valley Civilization covered an expansive area, totaling 1,260,000 sq. km, spanning across present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
  • Cities and Settlements: A significant number of 1056 cities and settlements associated with the Indus Valley Civilization have been identified, with 96 of them being excavated.
  • Territorial Extent: The civilization’s reach extended from the Ghaggar-Hakra Valley in the east to the Makran coast of Balochistan in the west. It included regions from Afghanistan in the northeastern to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south.
  • Geographical Concentration: Most of the settlements were concentrated in the broader region encompassing the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries.
  • Major Urban Centers: Prominent urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization included Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Ganweriwala, and Rakhigarhi.

Advancements in Metallurgy in Indus Valley Civilization:

• Diverse Metal Production: The Indus Valley Civilization demonstrated proficiency in metallurgy by producing various metal products made of lead, copper, bronze, and tin.
• Export of Metal Products: These metal products were not only utilized locally but were also exported to other regions, showcasing a sophisticated trade network.
• Copper Smelting Techniques: The civilization possessed knowledge of advanced techniques for smelting copper with other metals, indicating a high level of metallurgical expertise.
• Gold Artefacts: Excavations at Lothal unearthed gold necklaces with diameters smaller than 0.25 mm, highlighting the precision achieved in working with gold. Other metal artefacts were discovered in prominent sites like Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, and Rangpur.
• Casting Method for Copper Implements: Copper implements in the Harappan civilization were crafted using the casting method, showcasing a level of sophistication in metalworking techniques.
• Bronze Vessel Production: Bronze vessels were manufactured using a distinctive method where a single sheet was hammered to create intricate vessels, revealing a high degree of craftsmanship.
• Metal Alloying Technology: The Indus Valley Civilization demonstrated a well-developed understanding of metal alloying technology, allowing them to create alloys with specific properties for various applications.

Art and Craft in the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Sophistication and Aesthetic Value: Art and craft during the Indus Valley period exhibited high sophistication, showcasing a remarkable level of achievement in both aesthetic value and techniques employed.
• Diverse Materials: Their artistic creations utilized a variety of materials, including terracotta, bronze, copper, and other metals, reflecting the diverse skills and expertise of the civilization.
• Expertise in Bead-Making: The Indus Valley civilization demonstrated expertise in bead-making, showcasing intricate designs and craftsmanship.
• Metal Bending and Casting: The discovery of artefacts suggests a high level of expertise in metal bending and casting, highlighting advanced metallurgical skills.
• Significance of Dance: The artefacts also indicate the importance of dance as a form of entertainment during that era, providing insights into the cultural and recreational aspects of the civilization.
• Archaeologist’s Remark: Archaeologist Sir John Marshall, credited with the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization, expressed his awe by stating, “When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric…”, emphasizing the exceptional quality of the artifacts.
• Lost-Wax Casting Process: The remarkable pieces of art were crafted using the lost-wax casting process, showcasing an advanced technique that predates similar methods used by the Greeks thousands of years later.

Drainage System of the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Advanced Sanitation Systems: The Indus Valley Civilization showcased advanced sanitation systems, demonstrating a remarkable understanding of water management and waste disposal.
• Pioneering Water Management: People of the Indus Valley were pioneers in implementing water channeling and waste disposal, predating similar practices in other ancient civilizations, including the Romans who built aqueducts much later.
• Separate Channels for Wastewater and Stormwater: The water management system of the Indus Valley Civilization was so advanced that it included separate channels lining Harappan streets for wastewater and stormwater (rainwater).
• Underground Wastewater Drains: The wastewater drains were constructed underground, highlighting the engineering sophistication of the civilization in designing efficient drainage systems.
• Terracotta Lids for Cleaning: To facilitate maintenance and cleaning, the underground drains were equipped with opening terracotta lids, allowing for access and ensuring the functionality of the drainage system.

Town Planning of the Indus Valley Civilization:

• World’s First Planned Cities: The Indus Valley Civilization boasted the distinction of having the world’s first planned cities, predating later urban planning achievements by thousands of years.
• Grid Pattern Layout: The cities of the civilization were meticulously planned with a grid pattern, featuring streets that intersected at right angles, creating a structured and organized urban environment.
• Antiquity Compared to Hippodamus: These planned cities were significantly older than the period of Hippodamus of Miletus, often regarded as the ‘father of European urban planning’.
• Rectangular Grid Pattern: The cities and towns of the Indus Valley Civilization adhered to a rectangular grid pattern, with main streets aligned in the North-South direction and secondary streets in the East-West direction.
• Religious or Astronomical Influence: The precise grid pattern is believed to be influenced by religious or astronomical beliefs, reflecting a deeper significance in the planning of these urban spaces.
• Standardization: In addition to being well-planned, the Harappan cities and towns demonstrated a high degree of standardization. Almost all excavated places exhibited similar structures, patterns, and even the dimensions of house bricks were uniform.
• Wide and Paved Streets: Streets in prominent cities like Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were wide, measuring up to 10.5 meters. Smaller roads were at least 1.5 meters wide. Archaeologists suggest that the width of the streets indicated market activities.
• Paved with Burnt Bricks: Harappan streets were paved with burnt bricks, facilitating the smooth movement of ox carts and emphasizing the civilization’s attention to urban infrastructure.
• Drainage Water Disposal: Channels along the streets served as a sophisticated drainage system for the disposal of wastewater, contributing to the cleanliness of the urban spaces.
• Distinct Neighborhoods: The cities could be divided into distinct neighborhoods, each with inhabitants engaged in specific professions, showcasing a well-organized and structured social and economic layout.

Religion in the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Matridevi or Shakti: The Mother Goddess, known as Matridevi or Shakti, held a significant place in the religious beliefs of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Yoni Worship and Nature Worship: The civilization practiced Yoni worship and had a connection to Nature worship, reflecting reverence for the divine feminine and the natural world.
• Tree Worship: Trees, such as the Peepal tree, were objects of worship, indicating a spiritual connection with nature and its life-sustaining elements.
• Fire Worship (Havan Kund): The worship of Fire, conducted through rituals like Havan Kund, showcased a spiritual significance associated with the purifying and transformative nature of fire.
• Pashupati Mahadeva: The deity known as Pashupati Mahadeva was venerated as the lord of animals, emphasizing a connection between the divine and the animal kingdom.
• Animal Worship (Unicorn and Ox): The people of the Indus Valley Civilization engaged in Animal worship, particularly focusing on symbolic creatures like the Unicorn and the ox, highlighting a spiritual connection with the animal realm.

Absence of Temples in the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Lack of Recognizable Temples: Archaeologists have not discovered any structures in the Indus Valley Civilization that resemble temples, palaces, or monumental religious edifices.
• Contrast with Other Civilizations: Unlike many other contemporary civilizations that had central monuments serving religious or administrative functions, the Indus Valley Civilization stands out for its absence of recognizable temples.
• Presence of Granaries and Public Baths: While structures like granaries and public baths have been identified, the absence of palaces or temples has intrigued historians.
• Egalitarian Interpretation: The absence of monumental religious or administrative structures has led historians to speculate that the Indus Valley society was egalitarian in nature. The lack of grandiose structures suggests a potential equality in social and religious practices.

The intriguing absence of temples in the archaeological record of the Indus Valley Civilization prompts questions about the nature of their religious practices and societal structure, offering a unique perspective in contrast to many other ancient civilizations.

Economic Features of the Indus Valley Civilization:

• Agricultural Foundation: The economy of the Indus Valley Civilization was primarily based on agriculture, with cultivation playing a central role in sustaining the population.
• Flourishing Trade and Commerce:
  • Meluhha as a Trading Partner: Trade and commerce thrived during this period, with references to the place called Meluhha by Mesopotamian (Sumerian) scribes. Meluhha was a significant trading partner, and the Sumerians imported timber and ebony in substantial quantities from this region.
  • Import of Sesame Oil and Luxury Items: The Indus Valley Civilization likely engaged in trade with other civilizations, importing commodities such as sesame oil and luxury items like lapis lazuli. Meluhha is believed to represent the Indus Valley region in these trade relations.
• Dockyard at Lothal: The discovery of a dockyard at Lothal provides evidence of maritime activities and suggests a well-developed system for handling seaborne trade.
• Exports and Imports: The existence of trade, both in terms of exports and imports, indicates a complex economic network with other regions.
• Cotton Production:
  • Cotton Cultivation: The production of cotton was a notable economic activity. The Indus Valley Civilization is considered one of the earliest civilizations to cultivate cotton.
• Weights and Measures:
  • Standardized Units: The Harappan culture had a system of weights and measures, evident from findings at Lothal. The standardized unit of measurement was 16.
  • Cubical-shaped Weights: Weights used in the civilization were typically made of materials like limestone and steatite, and they were often cubical in shape, showcasing a level of precision and standardization in economic transactions.

The economic foundation of the Indus Valley Civilization involved a combination of agricultural practices and extensive trade networks, contributing to the prosperity and complexity of the civilization.