Indus Valley Civilization: Study Notes

The Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan Civilization:

• Established around 3300 BC.
• Flourished between 2600 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization).
• Started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC.
• Also known as the Harappan Civilization, named after the city of Harappa.
• Pre-Harappan civilization found in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, showing early evidence of cotton cultivation.
• Geographically covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Western Uttar Pradesh.
• Extended from Sutkagengor (Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South.
• Some Indus Valley sites found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

Notable Indus Valley Cities

• In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab).
• In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).

Discovery:

• Discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 at Harappa.
• Seals discovered by J Fleet.
• Harappan ruins also discovered by Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats.
• Mohenjodaro ruins excavated by R.D. Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall.

Advanced Features:

• Cities showed sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations.
• Typical city structure included a citadel and a lower town.
• Most cities had a Great Bath, granaries, 2-storied burnt brick houses, closed drainage, stormwater, and wastewater management.
• Seals, weights, toys, and pottery were common findings.
• Agriculture, with cotton cultivation, was central.
• Domestication of animals included sheep, goats, and pigs.
• Crops grown included wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates, and peas.
• Trade with the Sumerians.
• Metal production included copper, bronze, tin, lead, gold, and silver, but not iron.
• No structures like temples or palaces found.

Religion and Artifacts:

• Worship of male and female deities, including the ‘Pashupati Seal,’ possibly an early form of Lord Shiva.
• Red pottery with black designs and faience used for beads and vessels.
• Advanced artwork, including the ‘Dancing Girl’ statuette and the bearded Priest-King figure.

Lothal:

Lothal served as a dockyard.

Burial Practices:

• Disposal of the dead initially by burial in wooden coffins.
• Later, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns.

Undeciphered Script:

The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered.

• The Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:
  • It did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined.
  • People moved eastwards, and cities were abandoned.
  • Writing and trade also declined.
• Theories on the Decline:
  • Mortimer Wheeler initially suggested an Aryan invasion as a cause, but this theory has been debunked.
  • Robert Raikes proposed tectonic movements and floods as a contributing factor.
  • Other factors include the drying up of rivers, deforestation, and destruction of the green cover.
  • Some cities may have been destroyed by floods, but not all.
  • Accepted that multiple factors likely led to the decline.New cities emerged about 1400 years later.

• History of India begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), also known as Harappan Civilization.
• Flourished around 2,500 BC in the western part of South Asia, in present-day Pakistan and Western India.
• The Indus Valley was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations, alongside Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
• In the 1920s, the Archaeological Department of India conducted excavations in the Indus Valley, leading to the discovery of two ancient cities, Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
• In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI (Archaeological Survey of India), announced the discovery of this new civilization to the world.

Archaeological sites from the Indus Valley Civilization and their important findings:

1. Harappa:
   • Excavated by Daya Ram Sahini in 1921.
   • Located on the bank of the river Ravi in Montgomery district of Punjab, Pakistan.
   • Important findings include sandstone statues of human anatomy, granaries, and bullock carts.
2. Mohenjodaro (Mound of Dead):
   • Excavated by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.
   • Situated on the bank of the river Indus in Larkana district of Punjab, Pakistan.
   • Important findings include the Great Bath, granary, bronze dancing girl, seal of Pasupathi Mahadeva, steatite statue of a bearded man, and a piece of woven cotton.
3. Sutkagendor:
   • Excavated by Stein in 1929.
   • Located in southwestern Balochistan province, Pakistan, on the Dast river.
   • Served as a trade point between Harappa and Babylon.
4. Chanhudaro:
   • Excavated by N.G. Majumdar in 1931.
   • Located in Sindh on the Indus river.
   • Notable findings include a bead maker’s shop and a footprint of a dog chasing a cat.
5. Amri:
   • Excavated by N.G. Majumdar in 1935.
   • Situated on the bank of the Indus river.
   • Important discovery includes evidence related to antelope.
6. Kalibangan:
   • Excavated by Ghose in 1953.
   • Located in Rajasthan on the bank of the Ghaggar river.
   • Notable findings include a fire altar, camel bones, and a wooden plough.
7. Lothal:
   • Excavated by R. Rao in 1953.
   • Located in Gujarat on the Bhogva river near the Gulf of Cambay.
   • Noteworthy for being the first man-made port, and findings include a dockyard, rice husk, fire altars, and evidence of chess playing.
8. Surkotada:
   • Excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1964.
   • Located in Gujarat.
   • Important discoveries include bones of horses and various beads.
9. Banawali:
   • Excavated by R.S. Bisht in 1974.
   • Located in Hisar district of Haryana.
   • Significant findings include beads, barley, and evidence of both pre-Harappan and Harappan culture.
10. Dholavira:
    • Excavated by R.S. Bisht in 1985.
    • Located in Gujarat in the Rann of Kachchh.
    • Known for its water harnessing system and water reservoir.

The history of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) can be divided into three phases

1. Early Harappan Phase (3300-2600 BCE):
   • Also related to the Hakra Phase in the Ghaggar-Hakra River Valley.
   • Characterized by centralized authority and urbanization.
   • Establishment of trade networks and cultivation of crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton.
   • Kot Diji represents the transitional phase leading up to the Mature Harappan Phase.
2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600-1900 BCE):
   • Marks the height of the Indus Valley Civilization’s development.
   • Large urban centers such as Harappa, Mohenjodaro in Pakistan, and Lothal in India.
   • Highly organized city planning, including citadels, lower towns, and a grid system for houses.
   • Prominent use of burnt bricks in construction.
   • Impressive drainage systems, individual courtyards, and bathrooms in houses.
   • Granaries were important structures.
3. Late Harappan Phase (1900-1300 BCE):
   • Signs of a gradual decline began around 1800 BC, with most cities abandoned by 1700 BC.
   • However, elements of the Indus Valley Civilization persisted in later cultures.
   • Archaeological data indicates the persistence of the Late Harappan culture until 1000-900 BC.
   • Some settlements, like Dholavira and Lothal, were fortified, with walls separating sections within the town.

The Indus Valley Civilization is known for its well-planned cities, sophisticated architecture, and advanced urban life. Its legacy continued in later cultures, and the civilization’s town planning and structures remain notable aspects of its historical significance.

Agriculture in Indus Valley Civilization

Food Crops:

1. • Harappan villages, often located near flood plains, were able to produce sufficient food grains.
   • Crops included wheat, barley, rai (mustard), peas, sesame, lentil, chickpea, and mustard.
   • Millets were also grown in some areas of Gujarat, although rice was relatively rare.
2. Cotton Production:
   • The Indus people were among the earliest to cultivate cotton.
3. Animal Use in Agriculture:
   • Representations on seals and terracotta sculptures suggest that bulls were known, and archaeologists believe that oxen were used for plowing.
4. Irrigation:
   • Most Harappan sites were located in semi-arid regions, suggesting that irrigation was likely required for agriculture.
   • Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, although evidence of extensive canal systems in Punjab or Sindh is limited.
5. Animal Husbandry:
   • In addition to agriculture, the Harappans also engaged in animal husbandry on a large scale.
6. Horses:
   • Evidence of horses comes from a superficial level of Mohenjodaro and a doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal.
   • However, the Harappan culture was not centered around the use of horses.

Key points about the economic aspects of the Indus valley civilization

1. Trade and Commerce:
   • Trade played a vital role in the life of the Indus people, as evidenced by numerous seals, a uniform script, and regulated weights and measures.
   • They engaged in significant trade in various commodities, including stone, metal, and shell.
2. Barter System:
   • Metal money was not used in the Indus Valley Civilization.
   • Trade was conducted primarily through a barter system, where goods and commodities were exchanged directly without the need for currency.
3. Navigation and Coastal Trade:
   • The Harappans practiced navigation along the coast of the Arabian Sea, indicating a developed maritime trade network.
   • They had trading colonies, including one in northern Afghanistan, which facilitated trade connections with Central Asia.
4. Trade Routes:
   • The Indus Valley Civilization had trade links with regions around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, possibly including Mesopotamia.
   • Long-distance trade in valuable items like lapis lazuli was a notable aspect of their commerce.
5. Lapis Lazuli Trade:
   • The Harappans engaged in long-distance trade in lapis lazuli, a deep blue semi-precious stone.
   • This trade in lapis lazuli may have contributed to the social prestige of the ruling class.

Overall, the Indus Valley Civilization had a well-organized economic system that relied on trade, a barter system, and maritime activities. Their trading networks extended to various regions, showcasing their economic prowess and connectivity with neighboring cultures.

Crafts practiced by the Harappans:

1. Bronze Work:
   • The Harappans were highly skilled in the manufacturing and use of bronze.
2. Metal Procurement:
   • Copper was sourced from the Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan.
   • Tin, likely used for bronze alloy, possibly came from Afghanistan.
3. Textile Industry:
   • Textile impressions have been discovered on several objects, indicating the presence of a textile industry.
4. Brick-Laying:
   • Large brick structures suggest that brick-laying was an important craft.
   • This also indicates the existence of a class of masons.
5. Boat-Making:
   • The Harappans practiced boat-making, indicating their proficiency in water transport.
6. Bead and Seal Making:
   • Bead making and seal making were prominent crafts in the civilization.
7. Terracotta Manufacturing:
   • Terracotta manufacture was a significant craft, producing various terracotta objects.
8. Jewelry:
   • Goldsmiths in the civilization crafted jewelry using silver, gold, and precious stones.
9. Pottery:
   • The potter’s wheel was widely used, leading to the production of characteristic glossy and shining pottery with distinct designs.

The craftsmanship of the Harappans reflected their advanced skills and the complexity of their society. Their ability to work with metals, textiles, bricks, terracotta, and jewelry showcased their cultural and artistic achievements.

Key points and theories regarding the institutions of the civilization

1. Limited Written Records:
   • Very few written materials, such as inscriptions or texts, have been discovered, making it challenging to understand the nature of state institutions.
2. Undeciphered Indus Script:
   • The Indus script has not been deciphered, further complicating efforts to decode the civilization’s governance and institutions.
3. Absence of Temples:
   • No temples have been found at any Harappan sites, suggesting that the ruling class was unlikely composed of priests.
4. Merchant Class Rule:
   • Some theories suggest that Harappa might have been ruled by a class of merchants, given the importance of trade and commerce in the civilization.
5. Absence of Clear Power Centers:
   • Archaeological records do not provide clear indications of a central power or depictions of individuals in authoritative positions.
6. Equality Theories:
   • Some archaeologists propose that Harappan society might have been relatively egalitarian, with no distinct rulers and everyone enjoying equal status.
7. Multiple Rulers Theory:
   • Another theory posits that there might not have been a single ruler but rather a system of multiple rulers representing different urban centers within the civilization.

In essence, due to the lack of decipherable written records and the absence of temples or clear depictions of rulers, there is ongoing debate and uncertainty regarding the nature of the state and institutions in the Indus Valley Civilization. Various theories suggest different possibilities, and the true nature of governance in this ancient civilization remains a subject of scholarly investigation and discussion.

Religion in the Indus Valley Civilization

1. Terracotta Figurines:
   • Numerous terracotta figurines of women have been discovered in Harappa.
   • One figurine shows a plant growing out of the embryo of a woman, suggesting a connection to fertility and life.
2. Earth as a Fertility Goddess:
   • Some interpretations suggest that the Harappans revered the earth as a fertility goddess.
   • This is akin to how the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
3. Male Deity: Pashupati Mahadeva:
   • A male deity is represented on a seal with three horned heads, depicted in the sitting posture of a yogi.
   • This god is surrounded by various animals, including an elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, and buffalo, with two deer at his feet.
   • This deity is identified as Pashupati Mahadeva.
4. Phallic and Female Symbols:
   • Numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone have been found.
5. Nature Worship:
   • The people of the Indus Valley region are believed to have worshipped trees and animals.
   • The one-horned unicorn, possibly representing the rhinoceros, and the humped bull were among the important animal symbols.
6. Amulets:
   • Amulets, often associated with protective or spiritual significance, have been found in large numbers.

The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

• The decline around 1800 BCE is a subject of debate.
• One theory suggests the invasion of Indo-European tribes, possibly Aryans, as a cause.
• However, evidence of the continuity of Indus elements in later cultures suggests that it may not have been solely due to invasion.
• Many scholars propose natural factors as contributing to the decline, including geological disturbances like earthquakes, shifts in river courses, changes in rainfall patterns, and flooding.
• The combination of these natural causes is believed to have led to a gradual but inevitable collapse of the civilization.

Religion in the Indus Valley Civilization remains a topic of speculation and interpretation due to the limited written records, and it is challenging to provide definitive answers about their beliefs and practices.

Important sites of the Indus Valley Civilization along with their locations and associated river banks

Phases of the Indus Valley Civilization

1. Early Harappan Phase (3300 BC – 2600 BC): This phase is characterized by the emergence of early Harappan communities and the development of centralized authority and urbanization.
2. Mature Harappan Phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC): During this period, the civilization reached its zenith with large urban centers, advanced city planning, and complex infrastructure.
3. Late Harappan Phase (1900 BC – 1300 BC): The late Harappan phase is marked by signs of a gradual decline, with many cities being abandoned by 1700 BC. The exact reasons for this decline are still debated among scholars.

Features of the Indus Valley Civilization